The right leadership can give people a sense of safety when neighboring nations are hostile. In Samuel’s time, Israel faced external threats and internal discord, and the judges only provided a fleeting sense of security. Israel wanted a king. The book of 1 Samuel records Israel’s transition from a federation of tribes to a centralized kingdom. Saul, Israel’s first king, did not remain faithful to God. But then God chose David as king, and God’s plan to save Israel—and the world—began to unfold. Setting Moses had predicted that the people of Israel would ask for a king to reign over them (Deut 17:14-20). God spelled out the requirements for a king (Deut 17:15) but also warned of the evils commonly associated with human kings. A king would want many horses, numerous wives, and large sums of gold and silver (Deut 17:16-17). To mitigate these tendencies, God instructed that each king of Israel must study God’s law (Deut 17:18-20). Throughout the days of the judges, Israel’s tribes lacked unity (see Judg 17–21). By Samuel’s time, Israel was looking for a king to unite the nation and protect it from internal and external threats. Gideon, who judged Israel about one hundred years before the time of Samuel, had acted a lot like a king. Gideon rejected the invitation to inaugurate a hereditary dynasty (Judg 8:22-23), but he began to act like a king: He accumulated gold and used it to build a religious idol (Judg 8:24-27), he took many wives (Judg 8:30), and he even named one of his sons Abimelech, which means “my father is king” (Judg 8:31). Gideon acted like the kind of king God wanted Israel never to have. A monarchy would give an imperfect human even more control than the judges exercised. 1 Samuel records the trouble that surrounded Israel’s first king, Saul, and begins to outline God’s unfolding plan to establish an eternal kingship through the line of David. Summary In 1 Samuel 1–7, Samuel emerges as a judge and prophet of God. Samuel was born to a devout woman named Hannah, who had previously been barren (1:1-23). As a young child, Samuel, a Levite, (1 Chr 6:33-34) became an apprentice in the Tabernacle under the supervision of Eli the priest (1:24–3:18). Likely trained to be a Tabernacle assistant, Samuel instead became a prophet with a growing reputation (3:19–4:1a). Evidently, he was not yet prominent in Israel’s national life when the Philistines harassed the Israelites and captured the Ark of the Covenant (4:1–7:2), as he is absent from that narrative. In chapter 7, Samuel reappears, calling Israel to repentance; and acting as a judge, he drove out the Philistine oppressors. Samuel’s leadership as Levite, prophet, and judge spanned all spheres of public life. Yet his sons did not prove worthy of carrying on in his place (8:1-3), so Israel asked Samuel to appoint a king to lead them, just like the other nations. Samuel was outspoken in his opposition (8:10-21), yet the Lord instructed Samuel to anoint Saul as king (chs 9–10). In his farewell address, Samuel reminded the Israelites of God’s power and care for them (ch 12). He wanted them to realize their sin in asking for a king rather than trusting in the Lord. Initially, Saul was a good king. He defeated the neighboring Ammonites and saved the city of Jabesh-gilead from doom (ch 11). But Saul soon proved, by his disobedience to God, that he was unworthy to be Israel’s king (chs 13, 15). By contrast, Saul’s noble son Jonathan seemed to be an ideal successor (14:1-52). But Jonathan would not succeed Saul, because God had different plans (chs 16–31). God instructed Samuel to anoint David secretly as Saul’s successor while Saul was still king (16:1-13). Saul’s relationship with David was good at first, thanks in part to David’s musical gifts (16:14-23). However, David’s success with Goliath (17:1-58) made Saul jealous (18:6-16), and Saul tried to eliminate the threat David posed to his kingship. He brought David into his family by marriage to provide greater opportunities to kill him (18:17-29). He attacked David directly (19:1-10) and executed anybody who harbored David (chs 21–22). Yet all of Saul’s attempts to eliminate David proved unsuccessful. Both Saul and Jonathan died in battle against the Philistines (31:1-6). This paved the way for David to begin his reign, though not without further difficulties (see 2 Sam 1:1–5:5). Authorship The title “Samuel” comes from the important role Samuel played in Israel’s transition to a monarchy, not from the book’s authorship. Samuel could have written parts of 1 Samuel, but he could not have written any part of 2 Samuel, as his death is recorded in 1 Samuel 25:1. The final editor of 1 Samuel is never identified. Composition The books of 1–2 Samuel were originally one book. The translators of the Septuagint (the Greek Old Testament) divided it into two books, 1–2 Kingdoms. Later Hebrew tradition also divided the book but retained the name Samuel, as do most English versions. Some scholars contend that 1–2 Samuel (along with 1–2 Kings, also one book originally) were created from a variety of sources during or after the Babylonian Exile (586–538 BC). Multiple sources were doubtless used in 1–2 Samuel—for example, Samuel, Nathan, and Gad all chronicled events from the life of David (1 Chronicles 29:29). The inspired author of 1–2 Samuel would have made use of such information. However, the book also could have been near its final form during or shortly after the reign of Solomon (971–931 BC). Shortly after Judah’s exile to Babylon, 1–2 Samuel was incorporated into the larger body of material that also includes Joshua, Judges, and 1–2 Kings. This section of Scripture traces Israel’s sacred history, beginning with blessing (conquering the land) and ending with judgment (losing the land). It explains to an audience in exile how their grave misfortune came about. Manuscripts The text of 1–2 Samuel that is found in the Greek Old Testament (the Septuagint, 200s BC) is different in many places from the Hebrew (Masoretic) text (around AD 1000). The Hebrew texts of Samuel in the Dead Sea Scrolls (around 250–50 BC) found at Qumran agree in some places with the Septuagint, in other places with the Masoretic Text. In still other places the Dead Sea texts have their own readings. Readers will encounter notes such as “Hebrew lacks . . . ” or “Greek reads . . . ” more frequently in 1–2 Samuel than in other Old Testament books. However, few of these textual variants significantly alter the meaning. Meaning and Message The emphasis on kingship in 1 Samuel first appears in Hannah’s prayer (see 2:10). The idea that Israel would have a king was as old as God’s promise to Abraham and Sarah (Gen 17:6, 16). God neither mandated nor forbade a monarchy but only spelled out the excesses from which Israel’s kings must abstain (see Deut 17:14-20). During the period of the judges, Israel changed dramatically for the worse—both spiritually and nationally. This steady disintegration reaches a horrible climax in Judges 17–21. The book of Judges hints that, to help correct this decline, Israel needed a king. Israel’s greatest threat was not the Philistines or any other predatory neighbor but Israel itself and its breaking of the covenant. Israel needed a king to guard the covenant, which the pre-monarchical order had put at risk. If the king’s responsibility was to administer the covenant (Deut 17:18-20), the prophet’s duty was to interpret its stipulations. For this reason, the prophet Samuel protected his divinely authorized claim over kings with a holy zeal. Not only did Samuel anoint Israel’s first two kings (1 Sam 10:1; 16:13), but he was also compelled to censure the king when he stepped outside of covenantal boundaries (13:8-15; 15:10-33). Saul did not have the character or integrity needed to lead Israel into a successful, God-honoring monarchy. Saul was not fated to fall, as though he had no control over his decisions. In fact, God wanted him to be a good king and made every provision for that to happen (such as changing his heart and giving him his Spirit). But God does not force righteousness, holiness, or obedience. His grace is persuasive but not coercive. Despite the deep disappointments of the era of the judges and the early monarchy, God’s sovereign control over Israel’s history is demonstrated in several ways: (1) A once-barren woman gave birth to Samuel, God’s agent for the transition to monarchy (ch 1); (2) a devastating Philistine victory became a Philistine defeat without human participation (chs 4–6); (3) the king whom the people demanded became God’s anointed (chs 8–10); (4) this king was rejected by God for his unfaithfulness (chs 13, 15); and (5) the eighth son of an obscure family, a man after God’s own heart, was chosen as the future king of Israel (ch 16). Unlike Saul’s rule, David’s kingship over Israel lasted, and one of his descendants later became the sovereign King of the whole world. Jesus is the final heir to David’s throne (John 7:42; Rev 5:5; 11:15). He perpetuates his ancestor’s virtues but never exhibits his flaws. Jesus is the world’s perfect and eternal Shepherd and King.